A Country of Corruption

Dictatorships

Even though Chad gained its independence in 1960, its unstable and corrupted government has always been controlled by dictators.

Tombalbaye

Francois Tombalbaye was named Prime Minister upon Chad's independence in 1960.  He gained power by consolidating support from a divided north and south.  He had been a member of the Sara peoples and was a union leader and representative from the Moyen-Chari Prefecture.  He claimed the Chadian Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste Tchadian) as his own. [1] 

As president, Tombalbaye abolished the two party system in favor of autocratic rule.  He is remembered for insensitive mismanagement and the rife he caused between different ethnicities in the country.  His main opposition had been the Muslim party, who began a civil war in 1965.  Tombalbaye was captured and killed in 1975. [2] 

Malloum & Oueddei

After his death, Felix Malloum became president for a short time (1975-1978). [3] In 1979, rebel factions finally conquered the capital, which caused a government collapse.  Goukouni Oueddei was then set up as president after a coup in 1979, but another coup deposed him in 1982. [4]

Habre

Hissene Habre gained power as a new president in 1982.  Relying on corruption and violence, Habre favored his own ethnic group - the Daza. [5] He is currently been charged for serious crimes, such as the killing and torturing of tens of thousands of people  His secret police was responsible for many of these.  Habre was also responsible for ethnic cleansing against the Sara, Hadjerai, and Zaghawa. [6] He was deposed by Deby, his general, in 1990 and placed under house arrest in Senegal.  He was charged with war crimes in 2013. [7]

Deby

Idriss Deby, the current dictator, abolished the single party policy when he took power in 1990.  He [8] He is seen as responsible for the oil line corruption (see prior article). [9]
also adopted a new constitution through which he became the president in 1996.  He won the next election five years later, then removed the law which stated that each president could only have two terms.  His rule is marked with ethnic violence.  Rebel forces have tried to take the capital twice, once in 2006 and again in 2008, but have failed both times.  In 2013, a coup was foiled against President Deby.





[1] "French Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad.

[2] "Chad: History", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad#History.
[3] "Felix Malloum", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Malloum.

[4] "Chad: History", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad#History.
[5] "Chad: History", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad#History.
[6] "Hissene Habre", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiss%C3%A8ne_Habr%C3%A9.
[7] "Chad: History", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad#History.
[8] "Chad: History", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad#History.
[9] "Idriss Deby", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idriss_D%C3%A9by.

First European Contacts to First Independent Government

Exploration & Conquest

The palace of the Sheikh of Bornu
as sketched by Dixon Denham

Modern-day Chad was first explored in 1822 by two Englishmen - Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton.  They were followed many years later by two Germans - Heinrich Barth in 1853 and Gustav Nachtigal in 1870.  Seeing an opportunity, France met with Germany in 1849 to set boundaries. [1] Their first claim came in 1887 when they acquired an area south of Chad called Oubangui-Chari. [2] Next, they met with England to set their northern border. This gave them the territory of Chad. [3] 

With their claims staked out, France moved in. Expeditions found the forces of Rabih az-Zubayr, a slave trader in southern Chad and they defeated him in the Battle of Kousseri. [4] It took them eleven years to conquer the Muslim states in the north. [5] By 1913, the French had completed their conquest of Chad. [6]

Chad - Colony of France

Now called the Military Territory of Chad, the country, having separated from France's largest colony, became a part of French Equatorial Africa. [7] This confederation included three other colonies to the south - Gabon, Middle Congo, and Uubangi-Chari. [8] 

Chad was ruled by a French civilian administration which was located in different colony.  Although this government embraced a sort of "live and let live" policy when it came to the northern African trade routes, the south was used chiefly for gaining wealth.  Cheap labor was sent south to other colonies.  After large scale economic development improved cotton production, Chad became a huge source.  Plantations had to reach a specific quota and the French bought at low prices.  The government lacked unifying policies and was characterized by neglect. [9]

Political Progression 

This all began to change in 1940 when Felix Eboue, a lieutenant governor, led Chad to support Charles de Gaulle during World War II.  They were the first French colony to do so.  Eboue tried to improve the modernization vs. culture situation but died when his plans were only partially realized. He was able, however, to secure African representation in France in 1946.  Chadian delegates were now being sent to the French General Council.  Soon, Africans became French citizens and reformed abolished forced labor. [10] In 1955, Chadians were given the right to hold civil service positions.

When the French National Assembly passed an enabling act (Overseas Reform Act), Chad and other territories were given greater self rule. [11] Chad voted to become an autonomous republic on September 28, 1958, and the Republic of Chad came to be on November 26 of that year.  Full and official independence was granted on August 11 of 1960.  The new constitution and government was set up two years later on April 4th with Tombalbaye as President. [12] 

Timeline of Important Events

1822: First exploration
1849: Conference with Germany to set borders
1887: France claims its territories
1989: Conference with England to set borders
1913: Conquest complete
1920: Chad becomes a colony, part of the French Equatorial Africa Confederation
1940: Chad becomes first colony to declare loyalty to Free France
1946: Chad gets representation in the French General Council
1956: Overseas Reform Act gives Chad greater self rule
1958: Colony becomes a republic
1960: Chad receives full independence
1962: Tombalbaye's government is set up





[1] "Chad - History", http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Chad-HISTORY.html.
[2] "French Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad.
[3] "Chad - History", http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Chad-HISTORY.html.
[4] "French Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad.
[5] "French Equatorial Africa", http://www.discoverfrance.net/Colonies/Eq_Africa.shtml.
[6] "Chad - History", http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Chad-HISTORY.html.
[7] "French Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad.
[8] "French Equatorial Africa", http://www.discoverfrance.net/Colonies/Eq_Africa.shtml.
[9] "French Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad.
[10] "French Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad.
[11] "French Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Chad.
[12] "Chad - History", http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Chad-HISTORY.html.

Refugees: The Consequences of the Arab Spring

Idriss Deby, Chad's current dictator

Chad has no shortage of corruption and limited civil liberties.  Its short life as an independent country is marked by dictators ignoring human rights.  They are responsible for arrests, tortures, killings, bans, rigged elections, censorship, and more. [1] Since 1980, the three dictators which have controlled Chad have been Francois Tombalbaye, Hissene Habre, and Idriss Deby. [2] A prior article on this blog, "Facing Adversity", discussed the abuse of Christianity under Tombalbaye.  

Even with this history of dictatorship and a lack of human rights, the Arab Spring did not affect Chad the way it affected other countries.  While the northern countries were overthrowing governments, communication kept most Chadians from knowing what was going on in the north. The still-developing and stifled telecommunications kept any sort of protest movement from succeeding. A study conducted in 2013 asked Chadians two questions about political awareness and recorded their answers in percentages [3]:

Q: "How closely have you been following political developments in Arab countries such as Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia?"
A: Very closely/somewhat closely: 31% [4]

Q: "Do you believe that the events that have unfolded in these Arab countries have had more of a positive or more of a negative effect on your country?"
A: More of a positive effect: 25%. More of a negative effect: 49% [5]

The photogenic Gaddafi of Libya

For a little while, however, there was talk of political problems.  When Libya was dealing with the "Arab Spring," Chadian soldiers fought to keep Gaddafi, the dictator of Libya, in power.  When he was deposed, there was an uneasy relationship between the new leaders and the president of Chad. [6] In addition, Libyan rebel groups moved south as their government crumbled.  Chad absorbed some of these groups.  Perhaps influenced by the upheaval in the north and these migrating rebels, the nomadic people living across the borders of Chad, Niger, and Libya had ideas of creating a separate state in north Chad. [7] This never happened.  

In 2013, a plot to overthrow the government through the assassination of Idrill Deby.  It was foiled, but some consider it the attempted beginning of an "Arab Summer." [8] Reports state that senior military offices and some members of the parliament were imprisoned for months for allegedly being involved in the plot. [9]

Refugees from Darfur, Sudan, in a camp in east Chad

The greatest impact the "Arab Spring" had on Chad was the countless refugees flooding into Chad from all sides. [10] It is estimated that over one million Libyans had fled to Tunisia, Egypt, Algeria, Niger, and Chad by 2012. [11] With Libyan refugees, refugees displaced by the conflict in Sudan (over 250,000 by 2012) [12], and the recent Nigerian refugees (detailed in prior post "Friday the Thirteenth"), Chad is overwhelmed with the consequences of the "Arab Spring." 











[1] "Chad". https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/chad#.VQePE454pkA
[2] "Chad". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad#History

[3] "Arab Spring Largely Ignored in Sub-Saharan Africa", Jay Loschky. http://www.gallup.com/poll/172079/arab-spring-largely-ignored-sub-saharan-africa.aspx

[4] "Arab Spring Largely Ignored in Sub-Saharan Africa", Jay Loschky. http://www.gallup.com/poll/172079/arab-spring-largely-ignored-sub-saharan-africa.aspx
[5] "Arab Spring Largely Ignored in Sub-Saharan Africa", Jay Loschky. http://www.gallup.com/poll/172079/arab-spring-largely-ignored-sub-saharan-africa.aspx
[6] "How could the Arab democratic wave change Africa?" Judith Vorrath. http://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/detail/article/how-could-the-arab-democratic-wave-change-africa/
[7] "Mali coup shows Arab Spring instability bleeds over borders," Faisal Al Yafai. http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/mali-coup-shows-arab-spring-instability-bleeds-over-borders#page1
[8] "Chad government foils coup attempt - minister," Madjiasra Nako. http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/05/02/uk-chad-coup-idUKBRE94101H20130502
[9] "Africa: Learning the hard lessons of Arab Spring," Acheikh Ibn-Oumar. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/12/africa-learning-hard-lessons-arab-spring-2013121771840774707.html
[10] "Chad". https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/chad#.VQePE454pkA
[11] "The Arab Spring's looming refugee crisis," Chris Ulack. http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/06/23/the-arab-springs-looming-refugee-crisis/
[12] "Sudanese refugees in Chad." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanese_refugees_in_Chad

Facing Adversity

As discussed in a previous post, Christianity reached Chad in the 1920's. Since then the Church has grown considerably, but its history has not always been "rosy." Missions, existing under the government's shadow, had to face many political issues. [1]

American Baptists, the first denomination, had to work around the French administrations through the monetary support of home churches. [2] The first six missionaries were sent by the General Council of Cooperating Baptists of North America. [3] Paul Metzler, one of the first, began five stations in the southeastern region. [4] They encouraged the new converts to give up their culture and folk religions and settle near Christian missions. They provided schools, clinics, and hospitals to Chadians before the French colonial administration did and produced Western-educated Chadians. [5]

Mission medical clinic

When French Roman Catholics appeared in 1929, friction developed in Europe because the Vatican had previously placed Chad under Italian jurisdiction. Fearing a fight, France discouraged Catholic missionaries from going in and upsetting Italy. The Vatican supported this decision.  It was not until after World War II, when the Italians lost their African colonies, that the French were allowed the freedom to send missionaries. [6]

The scars on Tombalbaye's face are traditional
markings of his tribe [13]

Forty years after missionaries entered Chad the country gained independence from France under the leadership of  President François Tombalbaye. His policies were far from popular with the Muslim north and a civil war began in 1965. [7] During this turmoil, Tombalbaye began his process of eliminating European influence and developing an African identity. He renamed the capital to N’Djamena, which had formally been called Fort-Lamy, changed his his first name to Ngarta, and forced all Muslim males to perform a Muslim “initiation.” Churches were closed and believers persecuted. Thirteen Chadian pastors were executed. Next, he had missionaries outlawed. [8] Of course, nurses and doctors could stay. [9]

Catholic church in N'Djamena

It was not until 1975, when Tombalbaye's regime was overthrown that churches were reopened and missionaries allowed to return. [10] In 1980, an estimated 80,000 Protestant Chadians were in Chad, with a total of 18,000 in N'Djamena, Chad's capital. In addition, 20,000 Chadians, both Christian and non-Christian, were attending Roman Catholic schools. [11]

In a 1993 census, it was confirmed that 20.1% of Chad's 6.542 million inhabitants were Catholics and 14.2 percent were Protestants. [12]



[1] "Christianity in Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Chad.
[2] "Christianity in Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Chad.
[3] "Association of Baptist Churches of Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Baptist_Churches_of_Chad.
[4] "Chad", https://www.bmm.org/country/chad/

[5] "Christianity in Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Chad.
[6] "Christianity in Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Chad.
[7] "Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad
[8]  "François Tombalbaye", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tombalbaye
[9] "Association of Baptist Churches of Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Baptist_Churches_of_Chad.
[10] "Association of Baptist Churches of Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Baptist_Churches_of_Chad.
[11] "Christianity in Chad", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Chad.
[12] "Religion Statistics by Country", http://www.religionfacts.com/religion_statistics/religion_statistics_by_country.htm
[13] "Francois Tombalbaye", http://www.africans.com/content/francois-tombalbaye-0.

An Empire One Thousand Years Old

Modern Kanembu Nomads

The Chadian nomads wandering the Sahara seem like living relics of ancient history, and they are.  Their predecessors were traveling the same sands of north and east Chad or cultivating the more hospitable northern and central parts, where historians trace peoples descending from the ancient kingdoms of the area.  Before the French claimed Chad in 1900, indigenous peoples lived in Islamic states.  But before that, traces of kingdoms, chiefdoms, and sultanates can be found. [1] Their histories read like a tangled mess - try to pick out one thread and find it is knotted with several others.  This article focuses on the two main kingdoms existing in the area - Kanem and Bornu.  They interacted with each other for a thousand years.

Kanem Empire

Kanem Flag

In 300 B.C. a nomadic people group called the Kanembu was pushed towards the Lake Chad due to political pressure in their former wandering grounds to the north. The Sao culture already existed there, but the Kanembu, under the Dugawa Dynasty, eventually dominated the Sao. They founded N'jimi (meaning "south" in their language" as their capital around 700 and called their divine king the "Mai." The ruling entity was called the "Magumi." After the arrival of Islam brought by the Berbers and Arabs, a Kanembu noble called Hummay removed the last Dugawa "mai" and established the Sefuwa Dynasty.  With his influence, the Kanem government went through Islmaization. New ideas from Arabia and the Mediterranean came with Islam. Kanem began growing rapidly, peaking under Mai Dunama Dabbalemi (1221-1259). As Dabbalemi proclaimed jihad war on the surrounding countries, the small Bornu kingdom, west of Lake Chad, recognized Kanem's power and began paying tribute. The kingdom flourished and expanded under Dabbalemi, but after his death the kingdom crumbled internally. By the end of the 1300's, Kanem was weak enough that the Bulala, a people group still enraged by the fact that Dabbalemi had destroyed their religious cult, took possession of Kanem and its capital. In turn, the Bulala would be conquered by the Bornu Empire. [2]

Evolution of the Kanem-Bornu Empire

Exiled from Kanem, the Sefuwa built their own state in 1380 - Bornu. They defeated Bulala and retook the old capital of N'jimi. They merged as the Kanem-Bornu empire. (Bornu) During the reign of Mai Idris Alooma (1571-1603), Kanem-Bornu became a great nation. Tribute came from surrounding kingdoms once again and trade flourished in the north. Slowly, however, Kanem-Bornu began to fade, becoming simply Bornu once again. The capital was conquered by the Fulani people, who had been declaring jihad war on most of north-central Africa. [3] Eventually, the Fulani, threatened by war and raiding in the north, accepted French protectorate in 1900. [4]

Bornu Warriors in 1847

Kanem-Bornu existed as a small fragment under small kings called "shehu" (from Arabic title), and this was the Kanem-Bornu which came into contact with the French. [5] Their heritage is preserved in an Arabic volume - called the Girgam - containing the names of 69 Kanem-Bornu rulers spread over almost a thousand years.  After the fall of the Sefuwa dynasty, the Fulani tried to remove the memory of the Sefuwa and destroyed all copies of the Girgam.  There are now only two known copies, but they give historians information concerning the length of the kings' reigns and some notable events. [6]





[1] "Culture of Chad", http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Chad.html#ixzz3SVEA63Y9.
[2] "Kanem Empire", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanem_Empire.
[3] "Kanem-Barnu Empire", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanem-Bornu_Empire.
[4] "Culture of Chad", http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Chad.html#ixzz3SVEA63Y9.
[5] "Kanem-Barnu Empire", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanem-Bornu_Empire.
[6] "Girgam", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girgam.

Friday the Thirteenth

The Chadian town after the attack

On February 13, 2015, members of the terrorist group Boko Haram stole across Lake Chad to attack a village. The group's focus has centered around Niger and Nigeria, making this the first attack onto Chadian soil.  Although the Chadian military responded, reports differ on how many villagers died (some say 5 [1] others say 10 [2]).  This was the first Boko Haram attack on Chad. [3]

Background

“Boko Haram” became common vocabulary in April of 2014, when 276 Nigerian schoolgirls were kidnapped and the majority held until October. [4] However, Boko Haram is much more complex. 

To begin with, Boko Haram is not the official name of this group.  The name is “Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’Awati Wal-Jihad,” which means “Group of the People of Sunna for Preaching and Jihad.”  In turn, "Boko Haram" specifically means "Western Education is Forbidden."  Its reaction against Westernization is a repercussion of events from the 1960’s to current.  When the British colonizers were pushed out of Nigeria, the country operated as a military dictatorship from 1966-1999 (excluding a few years’ time when the country was democratic).  Religious violence was high in the 1980’s as Islamic sects clashed, resulting in riots in the larger cities.  The country “stabilized” in 1999, but Nigeria has still dealt with social inequality, poverty, increasingly radical Islam, and full hyper-renouncement of former British colonization.  Out of this came what we refer to as Boko Haram – a Wahhabi, Salafi, and fundamentalist sect.  This radical group was founded by Mohammad Yusuf in 2002 as a full rejection of Westernization, especially Western education, and is connected with al-Qaeda and Iraq.  Its goal is to create a fundamentalist Emirate state in Nigeria. [5]

Abubakar Shekau - from his February 16, 2015, video.

Boko Haram grew quietly until 2009, when nine of its members were captured and their bombs and weapons confiscated.  The group launched a series of revenge attacks on local police.  By the end of July, 700 members of Boko Haram were dead and many state buildings, schools, and churches had been burned.  The founder, Mohammad Yusuf, died in custody and another round of revenge attacks began under his successor, Abubakar Shekau.  Everything “snowballed” for years with riots, bombings, IED’s, suicide bombers, and the bombing of a US Embassy.  One set of bombings occurred hours after a 2011 presidential inauguration ceremony.  The so-called “Christmas Day Bombings” of 2011 were a series of 115 coinciding attacks which killed 550 people.  When a state of emergency was called in Nigeria in 2012, Shekau responded with a statement giving southern Nigerians three days to leave before he began many small-scale attacks on ethnic Igbo’s and Christians.  Within three weeks, 275 people were dead.  And the attacks are continuing, creating thousands of displaced refugees. [6] (A timeline of events can be found here)

The World's Reaction

Refugees in Ngouboua

Some of these refugees were accepted into Chad in the past six years from both the Central African Republic and Nigeria.  The town of Ngouboua was particularly generous - it is reported that the village chief willingly shared all he had.  This chief, Mai Koleye, was among the dead after Boko Haram's attack. [7] Officials say that thirty fighters crossed Lake Chad in three motarized canoes around three in the morning. [8] Houses were set on fire, police stations attacked, villagers and refugees - some who had fled from Baga only a month before - were  killed. [9]

The Chadian attack set off a chain of major events.  Monday, the 17th, representatives met in Cameroon's capital to plan the military cooperation of thirteen Central African states.  A total of $100 million was pledged to help fight Boko Haram. [10] 

That same day, Boko Haram attacked a Cameroon military camp. [11] Alongside of this attack, Abubakar Shekau released a video: "If you insist on continuing the aggression and coalition with the government of Chad, then we give you glad tidings that the land of Niger is easier than the land of Nigeria and moving the war to the depth of your cities will be the first reaction toward an aggression that occurs after this statement.” [12]

On the same day, the US backed a perennial counter-terrorism exercise.  A combination of armies from twenty-eight African and Western countries went through a warm-up exercise (called "Flintlock") in preparation for an offensive against Boko Haram.  The spokesman from Burkina Faso said “What we want is to learn to work together more effectively in fighting terrorism.  With Boko Haram, we have found that a single state cannot do it.” [13]

Chadian soldiers during the "Flintlock" exercises

UPDATE: "In Nigeria, Boko Haram Loses Ground to Chadians" - The New York Times.

Boko Haram Base Captured: Chad Taking Down Insurgents" - NAIJ.com (National Association of Independent Journalists - Nigeria)

[1] "Nigeria's Boko Haram Carries Out First Attack on Neighboring Chad".  http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/missing-nigeria-schoolgirls/nigerias-boko-haram-carries-out-first-attack-neighboring-chad-n305716

[2] "Boko Haram Killings Reported in Chad for First Time", Ben Mathis-Lilley. http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/02/13/boko_haram_chad_attacks_spread_to_neighboring_country.html

[3] "Boko Haram Killings Reported in Chad for First Time", Ben Mathis-Lilley. http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/02/13/boko_haram_chad_attacks_spread_to_neighboring_country.html

[4] "Boko Haram Fast Facts". http://www.cnn.com/2014/06/09/world/boko-haram-fast-facts/

[5] "Boko Haram". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boko_Haram

[6] "Boko Haram". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boko_Haram

[7] "With Attack, Boko Haram Makes Chad Its Target", Adam Nossiter. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/14/world/africa/boko-haram-carries-out-first-attack-in-chad.html?_r=0

[8] "Nigeria's Boko Haram Carries Out First Attack on Neighboring Chad". http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/missing-nigeria-schoolgirls/nigerias-boko-haram-carries-out-first-attack-neighboring-chad-n305716

[9] "Boko Haram Killings Reported in Chad for First Time", Ben Mathis-Lilley. http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/02/13/boko_haram_chad_attacks_spread_to_neighboring_country.html

[10] "Chad and Neighboring States Prepare to Take On Boko Haram". http://www.newsweek.com/chad-and-neighboring-states-prepare-take-boko-haram-307269

[11] "Chad and Neighboring States Prepare to Take On Boko Haram". http://www.newsweek.com/chad-and-neighboring-states-prepare-take-boko-haram-307269

[12] "Chad and Neighboring States Prepare to Take On Boko Haram". http://www.newsweek.com/chad-and-neighboring-states-prepare-take-boko-haram-307269

[13] "Chad and Neighboring States Prepare to Take On Boko Haram". http://www.newsweek.com/chad-and-neighboring-states-prepare-take-boko-haram-307269